Rocks and Minerals
1. The age of the Earth-

The Earth is about 4.6 billion years old.

2. How the layers cooled-
As the Earth cooled the heaviest and densest materials sank to the center, and the lightest materials rose to the top. The heaviest materials are the metals iron and nickel, which makes up the inner and outer cores. The lightest materials are rock and make up the crust and upper most region of the mantle.

3. Rocks-
Rocks are composed of two or more minerals. These minerals have been 1) cemented together 2) squeezed and heated together, or 3) melted and cooled together Rocks make up the vast majority of the Earth\'s crust. The two most common rocks on the crust are granite and basalts.
4. Minerals-
A mineral is a solid that is composed of one substance that occurs naturally on Earth.

5. Soil-
Soil is composed of very small, weathered fragments of rock along with organic (decomposed or decomposing plant and animal material) material.

6. Rock Cycle-
The rock cycle is the process in which igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks are changed over time. Igneous rocks are formed by volcanic activity. Metamorphic rocks are igneous, sedimentary, or other metamorphic rocks that have been changed by heat, pressure, chemical means, or a combination of all or some of the above. Sedimentary rocks are formed from the weathering of all of the rock types and the cementing, compressing, or recrystallization of the sediments.

7. Granite-
Granite is an igneous rock that has formed deep under the surface of the Earth. It is composed of four minerals. They are 1) quartz 2)feldspar 3) mica 4) hornblende.


8. Feldspar-
Feldspars are the most abundant minerals found on the surface of the Earth. Feldspars can be glassy white, pink, and a variety of other colors. They contain silica, aluminum and potassium. Clays are usually composed of weathered feldspar.

9. Mica-
Micas are minerals that can be split into very thin sheets. Mica can be clear to very dark green or black in color. Muscovite and biotite are the two micas we are going to study.

10. Hornblende-
Hornblende is a mineral that is composed of magnesium, iron, silica, and aluminum. It is found in many igneous rocks.

11. Quartz-
Quartz is a very common mineral that is found on the surface of the Earth. Its chemical formula is SiO2 (silicon oxide) Sand is quartz crystals that have been weathered into small pieces.
Lesson 11 Minerals
1. Minerals-
A mineral is a solid material, made of one substance, that occurs naturally on Earth.

2. Crystals-
A crystal is a solid that forms by repeated 3-dimensional patterns of atoms, ions, or molecules.

1. Amorphous-Minerals that do not grow in regular crystalline patterns
2. Crystalline- Minerals that grow in regular crystalline patterns.

3. Elements-
A substance that is made of atoms that have an identical number of protons and electrons and can not be reduced into a simpler form.

4. Properties-
Characteristics of minerals that helps scientists to identify and label minerals.

1. Luster- The way a mineral reflects light.
2. Color/Streak- The color of a mineral as seen by the human eye. Streak is the color of the powder of a minerals caused by rubbing the mineral across a streak plate. This shows the true color before the mineral is attacked by the atmosphere.
3. Hardness- Property of a mineral that is relative to other objects and minerals.

a. Mohs Hardness Scale- A scale that ranks the minerals relatively from 1-10. ! is the softest mineral (Talc) and 10 is the hardest mineral (Diamond)

1. Magnetism- A property of attraction between the mineral and a magnet. There are only two minerals that are naturally magnetic.

Lesson 11 vocabulary continued
5. Cleavage/fracture- The ability of a mineral to break along straight lines. Fracture is the ability of a mineral to break or shatter like glass with no pattern or design.

6. Hematite- A mineral that is high in iron. It is the most common form of iron ore. It is brown to red in color. It has a metallic or earthy luster. It is a 5 on the Mohs hardness scale.

7. Calcite- Calcite is a mineral that is composed of Calcium Carbonate. It forms from the decomposition of
fish skeletons or shell at the bottom of the ocean. It is usually yellow or yellowish white in color. It is soft with a hardness of 2. It forms in perfect rhomboidal cubes. It is the cementing agent of many sedimentary rocks. It is the substance that forms stalactites and stalagmites in caves.

8. Talc- Talc is the soft mineral that is given he number 1 on Mohs Hardness scale. It has pearly luster and is greasy tot he touch. It has perfect cleavage and was ground up into talcum powder for many years.

9. Galena- Galena is a mineral with perfect cubic crystals. It is the main source of lead ore in the U.S. It has a hardness of 2.5 making it quite soft..

10. Magnetite- Magnetite is a mineral that is almost pure iron. It is one of two minerals that is magnetic by nature. It is a very good source of iron ore. It has a metallic luster and is a 5.5 on Mohs hardness scale.


Lesson 12 Igneous Rocks
1. Ignis- The word igneous comes to us from the Latin word "ignis" which means "fire"

2. Magma- Magma is molten rock that is located under the surface of the Earth.

intrusive- This is an igneous rock that had cooled inside the Earth.

batholith- This is a very large igneous intrusive that is more than 100 square miles in volume. It is the largest of the igneous intrusions. They usually have granite cores. Batholiths are examples of igneous bodies that are called discordant bodies.

dikes- This is an igneous intrusion that runs vertically or near vertically and cuts across a preexisting body of rock.

laccoliths- This is a smaller version of a batholith that runs parallel to an already existing rock body.

sills- This is an igneous body that is similar to a dike with the exception that it runs parallel to preexisting rock bodies instead of cutting through it.

extrusive- These are igneous bodies that cool on the surface of the Earth.

3. Lava- This molten rock that has erupted to and on the surface of the Earth.

4. Acidic Rocks- These are igneous rocks that are high in silica and are acidic in nature. Above 65% silica.

vocabulary page 6
5. Basic Rocks- These are igneous rocks that are much lower in silica than are acidic rocks. Below 52% silica.

6. Basalt- This is the most widespread of all the extrusive igneous rocks. Basalts are dark in color and are very fine-grained. Basalt minerals are so fine that they are not able to be seen with the naked eye. They usually cool very fast on the surface of the Earth but can cool inside the Earth.

7. Pumice- This is a very light extrusive igneous rock. It is so light that it actually floats on water. It forms in the air as it is shot out during a volcanic eruption. As the lava flies through the air, the gases inside the lava escape and that leaves holes in the rock.

8. Rhyolite- Rhyolite is the same as granite in its composition. The difference is that rhyolite forms on the surface of the Earth and cools much more rapidly. This leaves it with very fine-grains.

9. Gabbro- This igneous rock is also similar to granite and rhyolite in its composition. It is very dark in color.

10. Obsidian- This igneous rock is also called volcanic glass. It cools so rapidly that it does not give the mineral crystals time to grow. It is very hard and fractures like glass. It was used by ancient native peoples around the world for spear and arrow heads. It can be clear to very dark green almost black in color.

Lesson 4- Earthquakes

1. Earthquake-
   A sudden movement of the Earth\'s plates that can cause destruction. Earthquakes occur at plate boundaries when built up pressures in rocks suddenly release causing the plates to move along a fault line.
2. Earthquake belts-
   A) Circum-Pacific belt-Encircles the outer rim of the Pacific Ocean. This area is the most active for earthquakes and volcanoes in the world.
   
   B) Alpide belt-
   This earthquake belt runs from Western Europe to Central Asia.
3. Fault-
   A long crack in the Earth\'s crust.
4. Focus-
   The place in the Earth\'s crust where an earthquake occurs. This is usually found deep under the surface of the Earth.
5. Epicenter-
   The place on the Earth\'s surface directly above the focus.
6. Earthquake Waves-
   Also called seismic waves. They are caused by the rapid release of energy caused by movements in the Earth\'s crust.
   
   A) Compression waves-
   First and fastest waves produced in an earthquake. They are also called P (Primary) waves. They move in a jackhammer motion.
   
   B) Shear waves-
   Second waves to strike an area. Also called S (Secondary) waves. They travel slower than P waves. They move in an up and down roller coaster motion.
   
   Lesson 4 continued
   
   C) Surface waves-
   These are the last waves to strike an area. They are the slowest waves and are confined to the surface of the Earth. They produce the most damage to man made materials. There are two kinds of surface waves; 1. Love waves and Rayleigh Waves.
7. Magnitude-
   Measurement of the intensity of an earthquake.
8. Richter Scale-
   Scale used to identify the strength of an earthquake. Richter scale runs from 1-9. Earthquakes with a 6 or above rating are considered powerful.
9. Seismograph-
   A graph showing the length and severity of an earthquake.
10. Strike-
    slip Fault/ San Andreas Fault-A strike-slip fault is located at a transverse plate boundary. The two plates slide by each other moving in opposite directions.
11. Tsunami-
    A very large wave produced from earthquakes, volcanic activity, or an under water landslide. These waves produce 30-100 foot high crests as they break onto the shoreline. They can produce enormous damage to seaside communities.

Lesson 5

12. 2 definitions of volcano-
1. An opening in the surface of the Earth that allows lava, gas,
   and pyroclastic material to reach the surface.
2. The mountain built by repeated eruptions of a volcano.
13. Paricutin-
    A volcano in Mexico. This volcano was produced in a farmers field in 1943 and built a 1300 foot cinder cone over 9 years. The volcano was name for the village that was destroyed by a large lava flow from its namesake.
14. Active Volcano-
    A volcano that is currently erupting or has erupted in recorded time.
15. Dormant Volcano-
    A volcano that is not erupting currently but has erupted in recorded time and is considered likely to do so again.
16. Extinct Volcano-
    A volcano that has not erupted in recorded time and is not considered likely to do so.
17. Lava Dome-
    A lava dome is a steep mass of very thick and pasty lava that is pushed up from the main vent.
18. Viscosity-
    The thickness of lava and magma determine how the volcano will erupt, what type of lava flow will be formed, and what type of volcanic cone will form. Viscosity is the measure of how thick or thin the lava is. Thick magma or lava is said to have a high viscosity, while thin lava or magma is said to have low viscosity.
19. 3 ways that volcanoes form
1. Subduction Zone Volcanoes-Form where two plate meet, one being driven down into the mantle. These are the most explosive volcanoes because as the plate is driven into the mantle ocean water is mixed into the magma causing the production of steam which makes the magma more explosive.
2. Rift Zone Volcanoes-These are formed where two plates are separating, magma fills the void left by the divergent plates. These volcanic mountains form a chain that circles the Earth. It is the longest continuous mountain chain in the world, over 40,000 miles long.
3. Hot Spot Volcanoes-They form where there is a upward flow of very hot solid rock coming from great depths in the mantle. The Hawaiian Islands and Yellowstone Caldera were formed from a volcanic hot spot as the plates moved over that particular hot spot.
20. Tilt Meter-
    Tool that measures the amount of change in the slope of a volcano or a lava dome. It is used to help predict an upcoming eruption. The movement of magma in a volcano is a sign that an eruption may be near.
    
    
    

Lesson 6

21. Magma-
    Molten rock under the surface of the Earth.
22. Magma Chamber-
    A large mass of magma usually located far under the surface of the Earth.
23. Fissure-
    A long crack in the surface of the Earth that allows magma and gases to reach the surface.
24. Dike-
    An intrusion of magma that becomes a passageway for magma. This passageway connects the conduit to the side vent. A dike runs through already existing layers of rock.
25. Side Vent-
    A secondary opening in a volcano that allows magma to reach the surface of the Earth. It is usually located on the flanks of a volcanic cone.
26. Lava-
    Molten rock that has reached the surface of the Earth.
27. Conduit-
    The main passage for magma.
28. Main Vent-
    The main opening in a volcano. Located at the top of the conduit.
29. Crater-
    The steep walled bowl shaped opening surrounding the main vent. This steep walled structure is formed by repeated eruptions of ash and lava.
30. Tuff-
    The rock that is formed by the mixture of lava and ash. This is the rock that is formed on the sides of stratovolcanoes.

Lesson 1 "The Earth\'s Layers"

 

1. Crust -The outer layer of the Earth. The crust consists of ocean plates and continental plates. The crust is composed of light material called rock. The crust and the outer layer of the mantle together are called the lithosphere. The lithosphere is very brittle and light and moves because of convection currents in the lower layer of the mantle called the asthenosphere.
2. Oceanic Crust -Made of dense basaltic rock. Oceanic plates carry the continental plates across the surface of the Earth.
3. Continental Crust -Made of light granitic rock. Continental crust rides on the oceanic crust.
• Lithosphere - The crust and the upper rigid layer of the mantle seem to move together and form the plates of the Earth.
4. Mantle -Largest layer of the Earth located directly under the crust. The mantle is composed of very hot, dense, flowing rock. The material in the mantle flows because of convection currents.
• Asthenosphere - Lower layer of the mantle. This is the layer that flows and moves the plates of the Earth. Flows very slowly with the consistency of hot asphalt under pressure.
5. Convection Currents - are a circular current caused by the difference in temperatures from the bottom to the top of the mantle. It is because of these currents that the plates of the Earth have moved in the past and are moving today. These plate movements cause earthquakes, mountain building, and volcanism.
6. Outer Core -The layer located directly under the mantle. The outer core is composed of liquid nickel and iron. Scientists believe that the outer core is liquid because S waves from an earthquake bounce of the layer instead of passing through it.
7. Inner Core -The inner core is composed of nickel and iron under such great temperatures and pressures that the metals are in a solid state of motion.

Lesson Two- "Pangaea to the present"

 

1. Dynamic Planet -The Earth\'s surface is very slowly but constantly changing. The plates are moving causing earthquakes that reshape the land, mountain building, and volcanism that also dramatically reshapes the surface.
2. Plates -The thin, fragile, and rigid lithosphere is broken up into 12 main plates. These plates move very slowly at about 1 inch to 4 inches per year.
3. Plate Tectonics/Continental Drift Theory -Alfred Wegener, a German scientist proposed this theory that states that the Earth\'s surface is broken into pieces that move and have moved for millions of years. Wegener did not know the mechanism that moved the plates, and his theory was rejected until the 1960\'s when scientists studied the ocean floor and found the mid-ocean ridges (sea floor spreading zones).
• Pangaea -Super continent 250 million years ago. The seven continents were all connected together into one huge land mass.
• Panthalassa -The gigantic ocean 250 million years ago. It was the predecessor to the Pacific Ocean.
• Laurasia -About 200 million years ago Pangaea began to break up. The northern part which consisted of North America, Asia, and Europe was then called Laurasia.
• Gondwanaland -The southern part after the split up of Pangaea was called Gondwanaland. Gondwanaland consisted of South America, Africa, Antarctica, Australia and the subcontinent of India.
  
  
4. Plate Boundaries
• Convergent -A boundary in which two plates collide causing
  1) immense mountain building (Ex: Indian plate and the Eurasian plate forming the Himalayan Mountains) and
  2) one plate riding above the other driving the thinner denser plate down into the mantle creating a subduction zone.
• Divergent -A boundary in which two plates are separating. The two plates are moving in opposite directions and as they spread apart magma fills the void causing the formation of new crust. Divergent boundaries cause the oceans to spread apart while convergent boundaries cause the oceans to shrink.
• Transform -A boundary in which two plates scrape and slide past each other. Transform boundaries are like tears in the Earth\'s crust. An example is the San Andreas Fault in California.

 

Lesson 3- How Plates Move

 

1. Subduction Zone -Formed at a convergent plate boundary. One plate is lighter and thicker than the other causing the thinner denser plate to be driven down into the mantle. Subduction zones are areas of the world in which high amounts of earthquakes and volcanism is present. Subduction zones are ocean shrinking zones.
2. Mid-ocean ridge -Formed at a divergent plate boundary. The worlds longest continuous mountain range over 40,000 miles long. Where the two plates separate lava fills the void causing new crust to be produced. Mid-ocean ridges are ocean spreading zones.
3. Magma/Magma Chamber -Magma is molten rock under the Earth\'s surface. Magma is full of gas and under extreme pressures. Magma will collect in areas of weak rock far under the surface of the Earth in zones called magma chambers.
4. Pyroclastic Rock -Pyroclastic is a Greek word that means "broken by fire". Pyroclasts are fragmented rock that is ejected from a volcano. Pyroclasts are classified by the size of the particle; ash is very small pieces of shattered rock. lapilli are pieces of shattered rock 1/10 of an inch to 2 inches in diameter. Blocks and bombs are larger pyroclasts ranging in size f